Education - mLpenguin (Page 3)

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Education

A collection of 118 posts

Lumbar Spinal Stenosis

Lumbar Spinal Stenosis

Narrowing of the spinal canal in the lumbar spine → compression of nerve roots * Leads to neurogenic claudication Causes * Degenerative arthritis (most common in older adults) * Intervertebral disc herniation * Spondylolisthesis * Ligamentum flavum hypertrophy * Congenital canal narrowing (rare) Clinical Features Neurogenic Claudication (classic finding) * Leg pain/weakness with standing or walking * Pain

Oligo- vs Poly- hydramnios

Oligo- vs Poly- hydramnios

Oligohydramnios * Definition: Too little amniotic fluid * AFI < 5 cm or Single Deepest Pocket < 2 cm * Key Features: * Poor fetal movement (cord compression) * Potter sequence * ↑ Risk of complications: cord compression, fetal distress, pulmonary hypoplasia * Common Causes: * Renal causes: * Bilateral renal agenesis * Posterior urethral valves * Polycystic kidney disease * Placental insufficiency:

Pericardial Effusion vs Cardiac Tamponade

Pericardial Effusion vs Cardiac Tamponade

Pericardial Effusion * Definition: Accumulation of fluid in the pericardial sac * Can be: Small or large, acute or chronic * Causes: * Infection (viral, TB) * Malignancy * Uremia * Autoimmune (SLE, RA) * Trauma * Post-MI (Dressler syndrome) * Symptoms: * Often asymptomatic if fluid accumulates slowly * May have chest discomfort, dyspnea * Physical Exam: * Muffled heart sounds * Dullness to

Types of Urinary Incontinence

Types of Urinary Incontinence

Stress Incontinence * Cause: Weak pelvic floor muscles → urethral hypermobility * Triggers: Coughing, sneezing, laughing, physical activity * Common in: Women post-vaginal delivery, menopause * Leak with: ↑ Intra-abdominal pressure * Tx: * First-line: Pelvic floor exercises (Kegels) * Pessary * Surgical: Midurethral sling Urge Incontinence (Overactive Bladder) * Cause: Detrusor overactivity * Symptoms: Sudden urge to void + involuntary leakage * Triggers:

Tanner Stages

* Assesses pubertal development based on secondary sexual characteristics * Rated from Stage I (prepubertal) to Stage V (adult maturity) * Focus areas: * Males: genital development and pubic hair * Females: breast development and pubic hair Males * Testicular enlargement is the first sign of puberty in boys (Tanner II) * Stage I: * Prepubertal; no genital

Gestation Hypertension and Eclampsia

Gestation Hypertension and Eclampsia

Gestational Hypertension Definition/Cause * New-onset BP ≥140/90 mmHg after 20 weeks gestation * No proteinuria or end-organ damage * Etiology: Unknown; possibly abnormal placentation → vascular dysfunction Clinical Symptoms * Often asymptomatic * No proteinuria, edema may be present * Normal labs Management * Monitor BP and symptoms closely * Weekly labs: CBC, liver function tests, urine

Breath Tests

Learn more about why a urea and hydrogen breath tests are used

Estrogen and Progesterone Effects during Pregnancy

Estrogen and Progesterone Effects during Pregnancy

Learn more about how both estrogen and progesterone cause changes throughout pregnancy

Common Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)

Common Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)

Herpes Simplex Virus (Genital Herpes) HSV-2 (most common), HSV-1 also possible * Presentation: * Painful grouped vesicles on erythematous base (genital, perianal) * Ulcerations after vesicle rupture * Systemic symptoms: fever, malaise, lymphadenopathy * Tender inguinal nodes * Recurrent outbreaks common * Diagnosis: PCR or viral culture of lesions * Treatment: * Acyclovir, valacyclovir, famciclovir * No cure; suppressive therapy

Contraceptives

Combined Hormonal Contraceptives Components: Estrogen + Progestin * Regulates cycles, reduces dysmenorrhea, acne * Decreases risk of endometrial and ovarian cancer Contraindications: * Aura migraine * Aura migraine -> increased risk of blood clots in the brain * Estrogen also increase the risk of clotting -> increase risk of stroke * Clotted history (DVT/PE)

Rh Immune Globulin (Rho(D) immune globulin)

Rh Immune Globulin (Rho(D) immune globulin)

Rh immune globulin is a medication used to prevent alloimmunization in Rh-negative individuals. They prevent the maternal development of anti-D antibodies that can cause hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN) in future Rh-positive pregnancies. If the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+, the Rh antigens from

Leiomyomas vs Adenomyosis

Leiomyomas vs Adenomyosis

Uterine Fibroids (Leiomyomas) These are well-circumscribed, benign tumors of myometrial smooth muscle found in the uterus. * Women >35 years, especially African American women * Estrogen-sensitive (grow during pregnancy, shrink after menopause) Symptoms: * Heavy menstrual bleeding (menorrhagia) * Pelvic pressure or pain * Constipation, urinary frequency (mass effect) * Reproductive issues (infertility, miscarriage risk)

Endometriosis vs Endometritis

Endometriosis vs Endometritis

Endometriosis Presence of endometrial glands & stroma outside the uterine cavity (e.g., ovaries, peritoneum, fallopian tubes) - ectopic endometrial tissue outside the uterus. This is likely due to retrograde menstruation, metaplasia, or lymphatic spread. * Reproductive-age women * Often nulliparous or infertile EndometriOsis - O stands for outside Symptoms: * Cyclic pelvic

Fetal Heart Rate (FHR) Decelerations

Fetal Heart Rate (FHR) Decelerations

Early Decelerations * Timing: Gradual decrease and return to baseline FHR mirroring uterine contractions. * The lowest point is the same as the peak uterine contraction. * Nadir (lowest point): Occurs at the same time as the peak of the contraction. * Cause: Fetal head compression (vagal stimulation). * Clinical significance: Benign; typically seen in

Meckel’s Diverticulum

Meckel’s Diverticulum

Meckel's diverticulum is a true congenital diverticulum of the small intestine that contains all three intestinal wall layers: mucosa, submucosa, and muscularis. This developmental anomaly represents a remnant of the vitelline (omphalomesenteric) duct that failed to obliterate during embryonic development. Pathophysiology The persistent vitelline duct creates an outpouching

Amniotic Fluid Embolism

Amniotic Fluid Embolism

Occurs when amniotic fluid, fetal cells, hair, or other debris enter the maternal bloodstream, usually during: * Labor or delivery * Cesarean section * Uterine trauma (e.g., rupture, instrumentation) This triggers a systemic inflammatory reaction, anaphylactoid response, and DIC (disseminated intravascular coagulation) * Amniotic fluid contains tissue factor (thromboplastin) and other procoagulant substances

The Menstrual Cycle

The Menstrual Cycle

Learn more about what happens during the menstrual cycle

Gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes

Learn more about gestational diabetes and subsequent complications caused by increased insulin

Erb’s Palsy & Klumpke’s Palsy

Erb’s Palsy & Klumpke’s Palsy

Learn more about the similarities and differences between Erb’s Palsy (waiters tip) and Klumpke’s Palsy (claw hand)

APGAR

The APGAR score is used to assess a newborn’s clinical status at 1 and 5 minutes after birth. It helps determine whether resuscitation is needed and monitors neonatal adaptation to extrauterine life. Category 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points Appearance (Color) Blue or pale all over Body pink, extremities

Caput Succedaneum vs Cephalohematoma

Caput Succedaneum vs Cephalohematoma

Caput Succedaneum * Edema (fluid accumulation) of the scalp soft tissues above the periosteum. * Cause: * Caused by pressure from the cervix on the presenting part of the fetal scalp during vaginal delivery. * Especially common after prolonged or difficult labor, or premature rupture of membranes. * Key Features: * Soft, boggy swelling on the

Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE) vs. Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease (LCPD)

Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE) vs. Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease (LCPD)

Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE) * Displacement of the femoral head (epiphysis) posteriorly and inferiorly relative to the femoral neck at the growth plate. * Due to mechanical failure * Epidemiology: * Typically affects adolescents (ages 10-16) * Obese or rapidly growing children * More common in boys * Risk Factors: * Obesity * Endocrine disorders (e.g., hypothyroidism,

Common Types of Anemia

Common Types of Anemia

Understanding RBC Morphology Normocytic and normochromic refer to normal erythrocytes (RBCs). The suffix "-cytic" refers to cell size, while "-chromic" indicates color intensity. Size Classification (Cytic) * Macrocytic: Large cells, typically associated with folate/B12 deficiency * Microcytic: Small cells, typically associated with iron deficiency Color Classification (Chromic)

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

CAH is a group of autosomal recessive disorders affecting cortisol biosynthesis in the adrenal cortex * Most common: 21-hydroxylase deficiency (→ ~90% of cases) * Gene: CYP21A2 HormoneLevelCortisol↓ACTH ↑ due to lack of negative feedbackAldosterone↓Salt wastingAndrogens↑Virilization Clinical Presentation Presents in neonatal period * Girls: * Ambiguous genitalia (clitoromegaly, labioscrotal fusion) * Boys: * Normal genitalia

Intracranial Hemorrhages (ICH)

Intracranial Hemorrhages (ICH)

Epidural Hematoma (EDH) * What It Is: * Bleeding between the skull and dura mater * Cause: * Rupture of the middle meningeal artery (often due to temporal bone fracture) * Clinical Presentation: * Brief loss of consciousness → lucid interval → rapid deterioration * Headache, vomiting, focal deficits, signs of increased ICP (e.g. blown pupil) * Imaging: * Biconvex